Home > The Princessehof collection of Asian ceramics > Chinese and Japanese trade ceramics > 2. Mid 16th to early 17th century porcelain and stoneware
Home > The Princessehof collection of Asian ceramics > Chinese and Japanese trade ceramics > 2. Mid 16th to early 17th century porcelain and stoneware
In 1514, 1515 and 1516 the Portuguese asked permission to erect a factory and a Catholic mission on Chinese soil. As they refused to accept the Chinese tribute system and failed to comply with Chinese custom, this permission was not granted. Eventually, in 1522, their behaviour caused the Chinese to close the mouth of the Pearl river and the port of Guangzhou to trade with all foreigners. Trade with other Chinese coastal harbours was soon also made impossible, but in 1557 emperor Jiajing (1522-1566) granted the Portuguese Macao to serve as their base. The advantages for China included the possibility to supervise and charge taxes. Another advantage was the assistance of the Portuguese fleet in the protection of the coastal waters. In the 1570s Portugal also gained footage at Nagasaki in Japan.
Portugal competed with Spain over the possession of the Moluccas, the Spice Islands. In 1529, in a treaty, they were assigned to Portugal.
Spain too required a base on Asian territory. The Spanish had gained access to Mexico and Peru where they had conquered property, including silver mines. The silver was of special value to the Chinese merchants. The Chinese government, craving it, ordered taxes to be paid in silver. In 1571 the Spanish founded Spanish Manilla, from where they traded extensively with China. They exchanged silver, acquired in the New World, for Chinese silks, metals, and porcelain. These goods in turn were shipped back to Europe over the Pacific ocean. Chinese luxury goods were in demand in the international ports of Japan, Southeast Asia, India, Persia, Europe and Mexico. In 1580 Portugal was annexed by the king of Spain. The China trade remained in Portuguese hands until the Dutch arrived in the area.
During the reign of emperor Jiajing the production of porcelain increased considerably, both as a result of large orders from the court, a growing demand from abroad and from the home market. The use of reign marks became even more common and commendations abound. Reign-marked wares are frequently found in collections outside China. Special forms like brush-holders, waterdroppers, and ink boxes, made for the Chinese elite, also found their way abroad. Large dishes were the main item of export to foreign markets. In Southeast Asia they were regarded as suitable grave gifts or passed on in the family as valuable heirlooms. In the Middle East they could be used at dinner serving several people.
Jiajing underglaze blue porcelains are well-potted, but the clay contains iron impurities. The glaze is thick and has a bluish tinge. Objects with reign marks and some other high-quality wares were painted in cobalt with a deep blue colour, imported from the Middle-East. This cobalt was very expensive and it had to be mixed with the local pigment from Ruizhou to stop it running during the firing. The deepest colour was obtained with just a very small portion of local cobalt.
Export porcelains were often painted with a lesser quality cobalt. The blue is usually paler. On objects dating from 1550 and later the blue is more violet and the glaze thin and smooth. A new shape is the Sheng vase, a vase with a pear-shaped upper section on a square lower one.
As on other Jiajing porcelains, the motifs on the selected items bear witness to the emperors obsession with immortality. These motifs include cranes, deer, immortals, pine trees, all symbols of Longevity, or the Three Friends of Winter (Pine, Bamboo and Prunus). Some traditional motifs appear in a new manner: the imperial dragon can have wings instead of fore-legs and four claws. The phoenix has short wings and long, trailing tail-feathers. Flying horses above crested waves are often seen. Little boys are very popular as they represent fertility and fulfilment of duties towards parents and ancestors. Landscapes with human figures, pagodas and other buildings, ducks in ponds or herons wading, are depicted in a very lively and individual manner and are often derived from illustrated books with poems, stories and plays.
Phoenixes among lotus scrolls, flower- or fruit branches with birds or squirrels on grape vines are to be found on borders. Bands of key-frets, classic scrolls and chevrons are common.
The export ceramics of the Wanli era (1573-1619) generally present a more orderly style. The glaze has a blue tone and can be fritted along edges, especially in the late Wanli era. The decoration is often in various shades of blue and rendered in a less painterly manner than on underglaze blue wares of the Jiajing period. The same motifs are found. Often scenes are depicted in quatrefoil medallions, reserved against fish-scale diapers or scrollwork. The majority of wares are decorated in a crowded, elaborate way. Shapes include censers, jars, vases, ewers, dishes, bowls, boxes, figures and objects for the scholars desk.
Two types of export ceramics that were first produced in the later 16th century, Zhangzhou (Swatow) ceramics and Kraak wares, will be discussed in separate chapters. The production of polychrome decorated wares increased during the 16th century. Some very fine examples of red and green wares (red and green being the main colours) were made during the Jiajing period. They remained popular, even when the wucai-palette, a combination of underglaze blue with polychrome enamels, became predominant. However, red and green wares dating from the Wanli period are rare.
Fahua wares, colours within boundaries seem to have been produced first in north China in Shanxi province during the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) and in the course of the 15th century also in the southern provinces. Low-fired glazes containing lead were applied on a white slip covering the northern stoneware bodies, within cells made by trailing slip. Jars, vases, bottles, and incense burners are frequently seen, and some human figures. Southern fahua having porcelain bodies are not included here. The fahua technique developed properly in the 15th century and remained in use until the later 17th century. Although fahua objects were carried across China and objects found their way abroad, they were not made for export.
Wares showing a floral decoration in white slip on a blue or brown glaze were mainly produced in the Wanli period. The slip decoration was executed in white porcelain clay. The floral designs are usually seen on vases, bottles, censers and boxes and can be very delicately drawn.
